diff --git a/examples/README.md b/examples/README.md
index f40157d..8053ebd 100644
--- a/examples/README.md
+++ b/examples/README.md
@@ -27,6 +27,7 @@ For example, the following will parse all the Python files in the standard libra
 
 - [error\_reporting\_lalr.py](error_reporting_lalr.py) - A demonstration of example-driven error reporting with the LALR parser
 - [python\_parser.py](python_parser.py) - A fully-working Python 2 & 3 parser (but not production ready yet!)
+- [python\_bytecode.py](python_bytecode.py) - A toy example showing how to compile Python directly to bytecode
 - [conf\_lalr.py](conf_lalr.py) - Demonstrates the power of LALR's contextual lexer on a toy configuration language
 - [conf\_earley.py](conf_earley.py) - Demonstrates the power of Earley's dynamic lexer on a toy configuration language
 - [custom\_lexer.py](custom_lexer.py) - Demonstrates using a custom lexer to parse a non-textual stream of data
diff --git a/examples/python3.lark b/examples/python3.lark
index 3f39f9f..78c9875 100644
--- a/examples/python3.lark
+++ b/examples/python3.lark
@@ -81,7 +81,7 @@ with_item: test ["as" expr]
 except_clause: "except" [test ["as" NAME]]
 suite: simple_stmt | _NEWLINE _INDENT stmt+ _DEDENT
 
-?test: or_test ["if" or_test "else" test] | lambdef
+?test: or_test ("if" or_test "else" test)? | lambdef
 ?test_nocond: or_test | lambdef_nocond
 lambdef: "lambda" [varargslist] ":" test
 lambdef_nocond: "lambda" [varargslist] ":" test_nocond
@@ -107,7 +107,7 @@ star_expr: "*" expr
 // sake of a __future__ import described in PEP 401 (which really works :-)
 !_comp_op: "<"|">"|"=="|">="|"<="|"<>"|"!="|"in"|"not" "in"|"is"|"is" "not"
 
-?power: await_expr ["**" factor]
+?power: await_expr ("**" factor)?
 ?await_expr: AWAIT? atom_expr
 AWAIT: "await"
 
@@ -137,7 +137,7 @@ dictorsetmaker: ( ((test ":" test | "**" expr) (comp_for | ("," (test ":" test |
 
 classdef: "class" NAME ["(" [arguments] ")"] ":" suite
 
-arguments: argvalue ("," argvalue)*  ["," [ starargs | kwargs]]
+arguments: argvalue ("," argvalue)*  ("," [ starargs | kwargs])?
          | starargs
          | kwargs
          | test comp_for
@@ -145,7 +145,7 @@ arguments: argvalue ("," argvalue)*  ["," [ starargs | kwargs]]
 starargs: "*" test ("," "*" test)* ("," argvalue)* ["," kwargs]
 kwargs: "**" test
 
-?argvalue: test ["=" test]
+?argvalue: test ("=" test)?
 
 
 
diff --git a/examples/python_bytecode.py b/examples/python_bytecode.py
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cbb8ccd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/python_bytecode.py
@@ -0,0 +1,77 @@
+#
+# This is a toy example that compiles Python directly to bytecode, without generating an AST.
+# It currently only works for very very simple Python code.
+#
+# It requires the 'bytecode' library. You can get it using
+#
+#     $ pip install bytecode
+#
+
+from lark import Lark, Transformer, v_args
+from lark.indenter import Indenter
+
+from bytecode import Instr, Bytecode
+
+class PythonIndenter(Indenter):
+    NL_type = '_NEWLINE'
+    OPEN_PAREN_types = ['LPAR', 'LSQB', 'LBRACE']
+    CLOSE_PAREN_types = ['RPAR', 'RSQB', 'RBRACE']
+    INDENT_type = '_INDENT'
+    DEDENT_type = '_DEDENT'
+    tab_len = 8
+
+
+@v_args(inline=True)
+class Compile(Transformer):
+    def number(self, n):
+        return [Instr('LOAD_CONST', int(n))]
+    def string(self, s):
+        return [Instr('LOAD_CONST', s[1:-1])]
+    def var(self, n):
+        return [Instr('LOAD_NAME', n)]
+
+    def arith_expr(self, a, op, b):
+        # TODO support chain arithmetic
+        assert op == '+'
+        return a + b + [Instr('BINARY_ADD')]
+
+    def arguments(self, args):
+        return args
+
+    def funccall(self, name, args):
+        return name + args + [Instr('CALL_FUNCTION', 1)]
+
+    @v_args(inline=False)
+    def file_input(self, stmts):
+        return sum(stmts, []) + [Instr("RETURN_VALUE")]
+
+    def expr_stmt(self, lval, rval):
+        # TODO more complicated than that
+        name ,= lval
+        assert name.name == 'LOAD_NAME' # XXX avoid with another layer of abstraction
+        return rval + [Instr("STORE_NAME", name.arg)]
+
+    def __default__(self, *args):
+        assert False, args
+
+
+python_parser3 = Lark.open('python3.lark', rel_to=__file__, start='file_input',
+                           parser='lalr', postlex=PythonIndenter(),
+                           transformer=Compile(), propagate_positions=False)
+
+def compile_python(s):
+    insts = python_parser3.parse(s+"\n")
+    return Bytecode(insts).to_code()
+
+code = compile_python("""
+a = 3
+b = 5
+print("Hello World!")
+print(a+(b+2))
+print((a+b)+2)
+""")
+exec(code)
+# -- Output --
+# Hello World!
+# 10
+# 10
diff --git a/lark/load_grammar.py b/lark/load_grammar.py
index 83ec341..77095a8 100644
--- a/lark/load_grammar.py
+++ b/lark/load_grammar.py
@@ -501,7 +501,7 @@ class Grammar:
 
                 empty_indices = [x==_EMPTY for x in expansion]
                 if any(empty_indices):
-                    exp_options = copy(options)
+                    exp_options = copy(options) or RuleOptions()
                     exp_options.empty_indices = empty_indices
                     expansion = [x for x in expansion if x!=_EMPTY]
                 else: